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CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ONSET OF SEDENTISM IN CAPPADOCIA                          

Henk WOLDRING
Groningen Institute of Archeology (GIA), Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, Poststraat 6, 9712 ER Groningen, NL.
H.Woldring@let.rug.nl

Since Todd (1980) initiated his archaeological surveys in Central Anatolia, the number of recorded prehistoric sites has steadily increased. Especially in the east-Central part of the country, known as Cappadocia, an appreciable number of Neolithic and Chalcolithic sites has been documented (Gülçur 1995; Esin 1998). Archaeological excavations at Early Neolithic Asikli Höyük and Musular show that obsidian implements played a major role in early subsistence economies, used in hunting and butchering animals, in processing cereals and other activities of food procurement. Obsidian was worked since before humans became sedentary (Chataigner et al. 1998). The timing of the start of sedentary societies in Cappadocia, possibly at about the second half of the 9th millenium cal BC, seems no coincidence. An important argument to settle was the improvement of climate in east-Central Anatolia during this period, which created the basic conditions for permanent subsistence.

Fig. 1: Map of Central Anatolia with the locations of the sites discussed in the text.

The botanical remains retrieved from Asikli Höyük (Fig. 1) attest among others the cultivation of einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum), emmer wheat (T. dicoccum), free-threshing wheat (T. aestivum/durum), hulled two-row barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. distichum), naked barley (H. vulgare ssp. vulgare), bitter vetch (Vicia ervilia), lentil (Lens culinaris) and pea (Pisum sativum). The presence of cereal culms, culm bases and rachis internode remains suggests that these crops were grown locally and not obtained by exchange or trade (Van Zeist and De Roller 1995).

Almonds (Amygdalus sp.) and maybe fruits of terebinths (Pistacia cf. atlantica) were collected from wild growing plants. Most common are the fruit remains of hackberry (Celtis tournefortii), a member of the elm family. These were gathered in great amounts, but the edible part of the fruit is so small that its contribution to the total food supply is negligible. Analyses of charred wood remains from Asikli and Musular indicate that terebinth was the major wood used for fuel. In addition, deciduous oaks (Quercus sp.) and poplar (Populus sp.) were identified among the carbonised remains.

Large amounts of bones of aurochs (Bos primigenius) and sheep (Ovis orientalis) have been recovered from Asikli (Buitenhuis 1997) and Musular (Buitenhuis, pers. comm.). Both are herbivores of open grassland or steppe habitats. The archaeological evidence thus reveals the occurrence of steppe and woody vegetation, but these data allow no assessment of the type and distribution of these early Holocene vegetation components.

A possibility to gain information on former vegetation is through study of pollen in lake and peat sediments. Palynological research of these sediments has shed light on vegetation history in different parts of the Near East (Van Zeist and Bottema 1991). Several pollen diagrams from lakes in Turkey have rendered detailed information on the regional vegetation histories, but pollen records from Central Anatolia are scarce. Up to now, the diagram from Akgöl Adabag in the Konya Plain, south-Central Anatolia (Fig. 1) is the only pollen sequence covering the lateglacial and early Holocene period (c. 13,000-4000 BP; Bottema and Woldring 1984/1986). The pollen record (Fig. 2) demonstrates arid steppe up to the first half of the 11th millennium BP. From that time birch (Betula) and deciduous oaks successively spread, indicating a change from arid to more humid conditions. In the course of the 9th millennium BP conifer forest, including pine, cedar and juniper spreads in the mountains surrounding the basin.

Fig. 2: Summary diagram of Akgöl Adabag

Despite the small distance, vegetation developments in this area may have differed from those in Cappadocia. In south-Central Anatolia steppe vegetation prevails climatically at present, whereas oak woodland would form the potential vegetation in most of Cappadocia (Kürschner 1984). To inform us about past vegetation and climate of this area, corings were carried out in the drained crater lake of Eski Acigöl by a crew from the Groningen Institute of Archaeology in the early 1990s. The former lake is situated on the Aksaray-Nevsehir road, c. 20km southwest of Nevsehir (Fig. 1). The 1992 coring rendered an almost 15 meters-long sediment sequence. Technical problems prevented further coring. Later coring revealed an unequal bottom surface, in depth averaging around 20 meters (Kuzucuoglu et al. 1998).

The summary diagram (Fig. 3) shows the most significant pollen types and the radiocarbon dates. Sediments from volcanic regions are often problematic to date by radiocarbon, since the dates frequently appear too old. Also the Acigöl sediments experienced an ageing of about 3100 years BP, as can be deduced from the intercept of the regression line (Cappers et al., in press). There are also other signals, which suggest an age-offset of about three millennia. For this reason the raw 14C dates indicated in the diagram have been corrected by 3100 years.

Fig. 3: Summary diagram of Eski Acıgöl.

The Acigöl pollen sequence covers the lateglacial and the Holocene. To reveal the changes in vegetation, a short interpretation of the relevant lateglacial and early Holocene pollen zones is given. The periods given between brackets show the corrected dates. Since the regression line suggests the lower 14C date (14,320±170 BP) to be an outlyer, the dating of zone 1 is based on the number of varves (c. 2725) in the corresponding sediment section (Woldring and Bottema, in press). The period 9000-6000 cal BC is indicated in the diagram:

Zone 1 (12,800-10,860 BP)

Zone 1 covers the lateglacial. This period is marked by arid steppe vegetation. During this time Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae and Gramineae were the predominant taxa. On the basis of modern steppe ecosystems in Iran (Freitag 1977), the lateglacial vegetation in the Acigöl area should be termed a semi-desert. Tree pollen (AP) values of about 10 % suggest scattered patches of oak-dominated woodland or scrubland.

Subzone 2a (10,860-8600 BP)

An abrupt change from arid steppe to dominance of grassland vegetation at the zone 1-2 transition reveals increased humidity. Interpolation of the radiocarbon dates places this event around 10,800 BP. The establishment and expansion of woodland or parkland during the period of grass steppe domination denotes a further improvement of climate conditions. Walter (1974) indicates annual precipitation of 250-350mm for natural grasslands in the southern Ukraine, whereas areas with alternating steppe and woodland (Waldsteppe = steppe forest) predominate in the 500mm precipitation zone. These figures indicate a rise in annual precipitation of c. 300mm at the start of zone 2, to at least 350-400mm at the end of subzone 2a.
Sedentism starts in the final phase of this period (the black bar approximately indicates the period contemporary with the Asikli occupation).

Subzone 2b (8600-7960 BP)

A further increase in precipitation took place during subzone 2b. At the end of this subzone, arboreal pollen values have risen to almost 30 % of the total pollen influx. Juniper (Juniperus), elm (Ulmus) and lime (Tilia) were growing in the environs of Acigöl. Climate conditions were especially optimal for the expansion of terebinths, Pistacia atlantica being the most likely producer of the early Holocene pollen. The light-demanding terebinths were growing at open locations in the woodlands or dominated the transitional zone between oak woodland and steppe. The ongoing expansion of oaks and terebinths reveals annual rainfall amounts of more than 400mm (Walter 1974; Van Zeist and Bottema 1977).
During this period the grass steppe gives way to drought-tolerant plant communities led by several composite taxa (only Artemisia and Matricaria are indicated in the pollen diagram), a development that almost contrasts with the annual rainfall deduced from the arboreal evidence. Foraging herbivores usually avoid unpalatable plants, resulting in the domination of this vegetation type. Therefore, the impact of pastoralism has been considered beside changes in climate (Woldring, in press).

Subzone 3a (7960-7000 BP)

This assemblage demonstrates a further expansion along with a more diverse composition of the woodlands. Most striking is the spread of hazel in the lake area. Conifer forest with pine and cedar shifted towards the Acigöl area from the south. This cold-tolerant vegetation spread from the Taurus Mountains into the Melendiz Dagi. Since cedar pollen has poor long-distance distribution (Van Zeist et al. 1975), stands of this tree closer to Acigöl must be assumed. Especially during the upper part of subzone 3a, the expansion of cedar included the Göllü Dag, the mountain range extending north of the Melendiz Dagi. The development of cedar forest requires minimum annual rainfall of 600mm (Kürschner 1984).
Deciduous taxa, like hazel and elm, are components of northern mesic forests, which reveals more temperate summer conditions compared to the previous period. The advance of conifer forest indicates lower winter temperatures and increase of precipitation (snow).

Subzone 3b (7000-3870 BP)

The subzone 3a-3b transition gives a date of c. 6000 cal BC. For this reason the lower part of this section is included in the interpretation. The spectra in this part show a drop in AP values to below 30 %, due to the decline of terebinth, hazel, cedar and pine.
The increase of Cerealia- and Hordeum/Triticum (barley/wheat)-type pollen reveals the cultivation of cereal crops in the Acigöl area from the start of this subzone, c. 7000 BP. There is evidence from the Ottenstedter See in Northwest Germany that eutrophication of the lake water triggered the bloom of a green alg (Pediastrum boryanum) and the decline and disappearance of two rotifer species, namely Filinia longiseta and Trichocerca cylindrica (Müller 1970). According to Müller, Neolithic cultivating in the lake area produced the increased nutrient input.
The Acigöl sequence shows remarkable parallels with the Ottenstedter See record. At the start of subzone 3b the rotifers Filinia longiseta and Trichocerca cylindrica have disappeared. During the phase of high cereal values an abrupt spread of green algae takes place, owing to higher eutrophy of the lake water. These developments point to soil working and crop cultivation close to the lake.

Conclusion

The time chronology indicates that the uppermost part of subzone 2a can be considered contemporary with the start of permanent habitation in Cappadocia. The pollen record displays a clear improvement of climate conditions during this time. This improvement played an essential part in supporting the means of subsistence for permanent human residence in east-Central Anatolia. The pollen data indicate that precipitation rose to at least 350-400mm per year in the upper part of subzone 2a. These amounts amply match the minimum conditions for crop cultivation.

The development of the grass steppe brought about an increase in quality and quantity of fodder for grazers compared to the more open and unpalatable vegetation of the Artemisia-Chenopodiaceae steppe. The bone record of Asikli and Musular, which includes wild herbivores like aurochs, sheep and goat, testifies the importance of the open habitats in the food procurement of the early sedentary economies. The grasslands may have been the impetus for breeding experiments, ultimately leading to the domestication of sheep and goat in the second half of the 9th millennium cal BC (see Gérard, this volume). Apart from the bone record, the setting of Asikli Höyük (1100m above sea level) suggests the presence of grasslands in the surroundings of the settlement. The most common steppe grass taxa, Stipa, Bromus and Festuca, inhabit deep, fine-grained, moisture retaining soils, which are generally found below 1000-1200m altitude (Walter 1956). Broadly speaking, the present farmed plains were the domain of the early Holocene grass steppe.

Adequate conditions for crop cultivation and cattle keeping, the major exponents of farming, settled in Cappadocia about 9000 BP. Of lesser weight, but even so of value, was the spread of trees and shrubs producing fruits and nuts, demonstrated by the archaeobotanical and palynological record. These components were an important supplement in the daily diet. Arboreal vegetation could also match the need for firewood.

Despite the farming potential revealed from the palynological evidence of Eski Acigöl, no Neolithic settlement sites have been traced in the Göllü Dag and Acigöl/Hotamis obsidian regions. The Asikli people must have had weighty reasons to settle at 30km from the source of their obsidian (Nenezi Dag, Kayirli). The presence of permanent, fresh, running water, possibly not a constant factor in the obsidian regions, may have been crucial in choosing to settle on the banks of the Melendiz River.

The obsidian sources were an important, if not the primary target for human presence in Cappadocia long before the start of sedentism. The early Holocene climate improvement and concurrent changes in plant growth were an important, if not essential, factor to support the establishment of sedentary farming societies in Cappadocia.

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